Media Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 2

Media - Essay Example To emphasize this theme of darkness from the beginning, Conrad’s narration took place in the Thames tidal estuary. Marlow recounted that London in ancient times was itself a dark place from the point of view of the Romans. This theme of darkness lurking beneath the surface would appear often as Conrad described the character of Kurtz and through his narrator with his passing sense of understanding with the Africans. In a paragraph, for instance, Marlow said: I tried to break the spell [Marlow says] – the heavy, mute spell of the wilderness – that seemed to draw him to its pitiless breast by the awakening of forgotten and brutal instincts, by the memory of gratified and monstrous passions. This alone I was convinced, had driven him out of the edge of the forest, to the bush, toward the gleam of fires, the throb of drums, the drone of weird incantations†¦ He had kicked himself loose of the earth†¦ His soul was mad. (p. 183) The darkness theme can also be found in other themes in the novella such as the naivetà © of Europeans regarding the various forms of darkness in Congo, the European colonialists’ abuse and exploitation of the Africans and the human nature’s tendency of duplicity. The Heart of Darkness has at least 10 film or television adaptations after its publication.. A problem in regard to adapting this work of fiction is how to translate the first person narrative first, in the radio adaption; and, second, in film adaptations later on. Marguerite Rippy cited the approach of substituting the eye of the camera for â€Å"I† of Conrad’s narrator. (p. 30) Here, the camera would become Marlow, whose voice would be heard offscreen. This has been implemented in Orson Welles’ adaptation of the novella. He successfully adapted the material in 1938 and that he was eager to reproduce the material on film. Film adaptations of the Heart of Darkness have focused on different interpretations. For example,

Arguments for and against capitalization of all leases Essay

Arguments for and against capitalization of all leases - Essay Example International Accounting Standards no. 17 states that a lease may qualify either as a capital lease or operating lease (http://www.ifrsclass.com/gaap/ias/ias-17.htm). Under capital lease, all the risks and rewards are transferred to the lessee. To resolve the differences between the two international accounting standards, both accounting boards agreed to meet to come up with a common stand on capital lease accounting scheduled in 2011. (Kirk 2005; 85). The proposal to capitalize all leases should not be implemented. The proposal to implement the capitalization of all leases should not be implemented. Capitalization entails ownership. Capitalization means that the company has to depreciation the assets. Thus, it would be illogical to implement the proposal to capitalize all leases. The new proposal states that operating leases should be capitalized. Under the current accounting environment, there are minimum guidelines to be followed before a lease is capitalized. A lease that does not qualify as capital lease is recorded as an operating lease. This is illogical because the lessee is just renting (borrowing) the premises and is not buying. Under the capital lease, the lessee can include the capital lease asset as part of one’s total assets. This will create a better financial picture of the company when compared to not having the leased property capitalized. Second, the company can use the capitalized assets as collateral for the processing of the company’s new long term loans. The banks will scrutinize the financial statements to determine if there are enough assets to cover for possible nonpayment of loans or other payables (Elliot & Elliot). This would be illogical because the company does not own the building or facilities rented. Further, the lessee becomes the owner of the property after fulfilling the requirements set forth under International

Reporting Abuses Essay Example for Free

Reporting Abuses Essay Every child must be protected from harm because it can cause many negative effects like trauma, physical and psychological disorders and any other illness that may effect their growth. So, the government makes a law that helps the child from being abused. This law can be found on Penal Code Section 11164 – 1174.4.3 (California Child Abuse and Neglect Law, 2007). This law aims to protect children and to give the rights of every child. This law also states that failure to report any abuses will consider a crime. In this way, everyone will be aware that they have the responsibility to protect every child, even if you don’t know them (California Child Abuse and Neglect Law, 2007). There are several cases of child abuse in our society but with the help of other people, it has been stopped like the story of Jenny (not her real name). She is a 4 year-old girl that lives with her father. Her mother was in the other country to work. Jenny was abused by his father and the poor little kid can’t do anything. One concerned neighbor report this incident. She reports all the maltreatment Jenny’s father do. Jenny’s father was caught and the child was claimed by the social welfare society until her mother arrives. Now, Jenny is living with her mother and her father was still in jail. This incident is an example of child protection. Jenny’s neighbor, even though she never knew her, helps Jenny and gives her the right to enjoy childhood. Based on Ethical Standards of Human Service Professionals, we must protect them from any harm. We must guide, educate, and provide them what they need for them to grow physically, psychologically and socially normal (Ethical Standards of Human Service Professionals, 1996). Reporting child abuses doesn’t mean that you won’t get any protection. The law also states that any reporters will get the protection needed to protect them. In this way, the concerned people won’t be afraid of reporting anyone who commits this crime. Their identity will remain confidential and they will have immunity for civil and criminal liability. The government also ensures that every report is true because if it is false, the reporter will suffer the consequences (The Code of Ethics and Good Practice for Childrens Sport in

The Macro and micro environment Analysis

The Macro and micro environment Analysis Business can be influenced by many different external stimuli, for example, recession in economy would put a direct effect on any business, moreover, national economy downfall, inflation rates would put and adverse effect on the business too. Besides, what turned out to be an adverse effect for many companies, it became a beneficial point for Dominos pizza, becoming one of the leading and dominant pizza service on earth. As stated by CEO of Dominos Pizza that results have shown the enough proof that in time of recession our prices and our company remained stable. The trend had totally changed, people who used to eat out were deceased in numbers which shown that people are not willing to make expenditures or maybe they dont have enough to spend. The CEO of Dominos Pizza was committed to make planning which included a process of obtaining funds which they couldnt get in the past which has been invested on Alternative investment market. Share price of this this company also went up to the top since the company has been established in 1999 and this large group now possess more than 500 sites only in United Kingdom and Ireland, which more plans to open in the future. By bringing new ideas into work, Dominos sales had gone up by introducing new pizzas for example Meatero. Second one to mention would be Rugby theme Scrummy, alongside the new ways in which orders are made. Orders are not only taken via phones but also online, cell phone texts. This type of ordering has gone up in a significant way. Environment of outside is very dynamic and is rapidly changing, everything which is outside the boundary of the business would be counted as an external source. Dominos continue to succeed, even in the current harsh economic conditions, because of dominos unrelenting focus on the quality of dominos pizzas, intense devotion to service and by marketing to dominos customers when and where they want to order. It is this passion that has delivered profit growth of 27.8% to  £29.9m (2008:  £23.4m) and that will continue to drive dominos business in years to come. PEST ( Political, Economic, Social and Technological) i. POLITICAL ISSUES: Political issues include regulatory frame work operating in judicial system which may affect the business in different ways. There are not many political factors in UK affecting Dominos business. Factors such as laws on business employment, pollution and taxation apply on the organization which it has to follow regarding the rules. ii. ECONOMIC FACTORS: If the countys economy is better so the GDP of the country will be good, this is a green signal for the business as the per capita income of the people will be increased and they will spend more money. In dominos survey dominos came to know that most of the people in the beginning of the months spend more and they visit Dominos very often. When the inflation rate increases the cost of raw material also increases and this leads towards high prices of the products and vice versa. iii. SOCIAL FACTORS: Dominos is a multinational and it is basically originated from America so the organization is overwhelmed by dominos western culture. There are social forms of society which consist of Upper class, middle class, middle upper class, lower class. Every country has cultural norms, values, beliefs and religion which can affect the organization. iv. TECHNOLOGICAL FACTORS: Now a days technology is improving so as baking and heating ovens will be of new and efficient technology and will provide efficient service. Due to new technology there are new ways of marketing like internet; telemarketing and the organization can advertise their products with much more faster pace. Computer based customer data that is MIS (managing information system) helps in collecting customer data, daily transactions, future forecasting and decision making. New vehicles will make their service more efficient. Briefly discuss the industry of sector The food industry is a complicated and one of the diverse business which operates alongside and provide food to consumers around the world. People who are not considered inside the scope of this industry are those farmers who grow on their land for themselves and survive on it. The food industry includes: Laws: which include All laws applicable which govern the food industry whether local, regional, national or international regulations. Education: This includes academic, vocational and consultancy Research and development: It would be done with the help of food technology Financial services insurance, credit Manufacturing: this would include agrichemicals, seed, farm machinery and supplies, agricultural construction, etc. Agriculture: raising of crops and livestock, seafood Food processing: preparation of fresh products for market, manufacture of prepared food products Marketing: promotion of generic products (e.g. milk board), new products, public opinion, through advertising, packaging, public relations, etc. Wholesale and distribution: warehousing, transportation, logistics High level technologies outline prevailing food production. In this many areas are included. Agricultural machinery, human labour has been almost practically eliminated by use of tractor in the field. Biotechnologies are bringing change, in such areas as agrochemicals, plant breeding and food processing. Many other areas of technology are also involved, to the point where it is hard to find an area that does not have a direct impact on the food industry. Computer technology is also a central force, with computer networks and specialized software providing the support infrastructure to allow global movement of the myriad components involved. Key success factors The critical success factors are related to dominos broad areas, customers preference for pizza as a food item. Its ability to prepare a pizza within a short time, to deliver it within 30 minutes of recording the order, and the store location. Since Dominos business model is based on home delivery, the speed of preparing the pizza and delivering it are the critical success factors. International strategies (Competitive analysis) SWOT Analysis: Every organization has its strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats. So, the SWOT analysis for Dominos is as under: Strengths: Dominos is the market leader in providing different products of pizzas as there are no competitors in this sector. There good image makes the organization more strong. Dominos is providing good taste, quality products with qualified staff, good atmosphere and hygienic environment. They are specialized in pizzas. Motivation level of staff is very high which make the organization more prosperous. They are ISO (International Standard Organization) certified. They have enough resources for operating different activities of the organization. They are providing free home delivery service. They have created monopoly in this sector. Another big Strength and even a Competitive Advantageos the fact that they have a full service restaurant as well as delivery services. Most of dominos competitors do not have restaurants. Because of the restaurant, Dominos can market too many different segments that other pizza chains cannot. For example, Dominos can market to families much easier than Dominos o r Little Caesars. Dominos weaknesses: The fact that Dominos does have a restaurant to run is also a weakness. Dominos has higher overhead costs, due to the restaurant that other competitors dont have to deal with. Another result of higher overhead costs is higher prices Dominos must charge. Obviously, Dominos is not the low cost producer. They rely on their quality pizza and good service to account for their higher prices. They are providing less range of products comparatively with high prices. They are more focused on western taste instead of Eastern. Very few outlets have dine-in facilities The menu is limited and pricey, and there are very few budget items on the menu. Opportunities: New markets can be explored and new opportunities they can gain. Dominos can come up with the new products considering the Eastern taste of the people as like McDonalds. Diversification of new products can increase their market share. They can reduce their prices because of more Dominos. Threats: Dominos number one threats are from their competitors. Currently, Their closest competitor is pizza hut who is working to open their Branch rapidly. Dominos main competitive advantage over Pizza hut is their lower price. Evaluate dominos company strategies with other different companies: Dominos has succeeded in expanding over continents and observed spectacular achievements, but in efforts to develop globally it has not been able to manage the domestic market with full efficiency and as a result, is losing grounds in the domestic market. Dominos has raised the standards of pizza industry to great heights, but in current economic situation, rising commodity prices and decrease in peoples purchasing power, it is struggling to balance between profitability and maintaining its standards. The increasing competition in the fast food industry adds to its array of challenges. A critical factor in Pizza Huts success has been a menu that has constantly evolved and expanded to cater to the changing needs and specific preferences of customers in different parts of the world. In having understood the pulse of the customers, Pizza Hut has clearly established itself as a brand with a Britain heart and Dominos need to learn that. Benchmarking: The status of Dominos has been as a private company, After making benchmarks with competitors, it has been observed that the level of sales for many years has been the same, which is a big achievement and is financial indicator that the organisation is towards growth and success in the retail business. It seems like good news for company. Speaking of bad news, the growth at which the competitors were going it was faster as compared to that of Dominos. It was actually giving up market share. At the same time, Dominos were celebrating internal celebrations of the fact that against our own internal matrix Dominos were doing well. Dominos did not only have to consider the past achievements and results in benchmarking but also it needed to take a look around at competitors, and on many occasions, Dominos require to realize what their outcomes are and initiate to grip ourselves responsible for that particular level of functioning. Dominos accept unevenness since dominos can choose a lot of people around us who are just as mediocre as dominos are. I want to find the very, very best, and I want to benchmark against them, and I want to get as good or better. I think if I lead that expectation and I get my team and my organization to embrace it, thats how dominos were going to become world-class performers. Takeaways Upon successful establishment of a business, masses think that there is no room of improvement any more, but things change either towards betterment or worseness. The minute companies become satisfied and pathetic in a minute when they go down. when To have a high-performance organization, you must foster a culture of continuous improvement. Dont accept mediocrity. Instead, look to your competitors, and benchmark yourself against them to achieve world-class performance. Organisation business plan: A businesss plan is the way of decisions and conducts made by the business to accomplish its goals. A business has a diversity of goals and objectives. In order to achieve business goals businesses should make sure that they organize their business in most efficient and effective manner; in achieving those objectives different plans are made. In the same way, Dominos has laid down many objectives which will help achieve the targets. Internal and external changes in the environment have made Dominos to reconsider the past strategies. The PEST and SWOT analysis illustrate the changes in environment. After rethinking all the factors Dominos has taken decision upon establishment of business plan, called functional plans These plans have been designed to make improvement in the operation efficiency of a business. All business organizations take on plans at practical level as once the practical objectives are accomplished; business objectives turn out to be easy. In order to make the practical strategy well organized, Dominos has made coordination among all its department. Porters Five Forces analysis of market structure The competitiveness of any company can be evaluated using famous five Porter`s forces. Porters Five Forces make an effort to analyse the charm of any industry by looking five forces in the market. Porter suggests that the probability of commencement of profits in a given industry will be depended on five factors. 1. The probability of new entrants, for example more the barriers for entry of new entrants are places more the chances of present market capturing firm to make high profits. The chances of entering a market would be hard if: Heavy capital spending is required which would constitute to big entry cost. Firms which are already equipped with past experience and knowledge of marketing would be advantageous. Another new entry barrier could be a Government policy, which blocks entry or makes it uneasy; for example, imposition of tax on imports which would make a barrier for foreign firm to get entry in the local market. The current brands are more reliable and have a high level of trust on their name The reaction of established firms could be hard hitting towards new comers in pricing The established entities could be in much more domination over supplies, for example, more proportion of the market is under influence of companies as De Beers. 2. The power of buyers. The stronger the power of buyers in an industry the more likely it is that they will be able to force down prices and reduce the profits of firms that provide the product. Buyer authority will be more if: Market does not have many big buyers, so established ones would be of particular importance to the firm. To gain the trust of buyer, it is very essential to bear in mind that provision of services should be of high standard at a reasonable price. As buyers could have strong bargaining power and could actually take possession of the firm, this warning could lead to better provision of services. 3. The power of suppliers. If suppliers are in a position in a particular market that their dominance is very strong that new entrants have fewer chances to make profits out of that sector because market is influences by those established suppliers which gives them power to decide how the business should operate in that sector. Suppliers will be more dominant if: They are in small numbers (leaving fewer choices). To go from one supplier to another would not be easy or could be very costly. The bargaining power of supplier can give them enough control to take hold of existing firms. 4. The extent of competition This estimates the degree of rivalry among those operating firm. Higher competition would make lesser chances for operating firms to make higher earnings. Competition will be complex if: There is greater proportion of parallel firms in terms of their masses and all going for a tough competition to capture consumers in the same market. The ultimate result for industry leavers could be threatening, because their funds are invested. This means the established firms will not take it easy and will fight hard in order to keep their resources intact. In a situation where there is higher level of capacity utilisation then prevailing firms will put an effort to win the sales to increase their own demand. There will be a fight in a crunching market when volumes of sales will be getting lower. If there is not much reliability then consumers are most likely to switch. 5. Additional threat. This measures the extent to which buyer can change its taste and move on to other products of the same industry e.g. travel in public busses rather than private cars. By looking at Porters analysis, we see that firms are more likely to get higher rewards if the business: Is complex to pass in Has not much competition Has to deal with small buyers Has to deal with small suppliers Have no other alternatives. Whereas, rewards are more likely to be lower if: Entrants can pass in easily There is high level of competition within the industry The Buyers are powerful The Suppliers are powerful There are other options available For top management it is crucial that they understand and acknowledge the consequences of Porters five factors before making a decision of industry to operate into. Ways to make favourable outcome should be sorted by trying to bring change in these five factors For example: One solution could be the mergers between rivals, there are such examples in the past in automobiles industry, pharmaceuticals and banking industries when rivals merged together to remove competition. If distributors could be bought up by firms then more influence of buyers can be achieved. If firms can stand out themselves among their rivals by unique selling proposition then this could good achieve positive results for the firm, the example of such marketing practitioner would be Coca Cola if they respond energetically to a firm that enters its market this may deter potential entrants in the future These five forces tend to change accordingly conditions of the market. For instance, customers have access to wide range of information these days to compare their options and prices; this makes consumer a powerful individual. The exposure of world markets (for example through the efforts of the WTO to increase the effect of safeguarding trade limits has led to much more competition in markets in past few years. In North America, It has been seen that in automobile industry leader Toyota is declining where as General Motors has risen in terms of sales recently just because consumers have now more options. At the same time, World Wide Web has even made easier for producers to enter in the markets because people have access to the internet all over the globe and online shopping trend is increasing day by day. The world of business is dynamic and environment surrounding particular industry is unpredictable and will keep changing. International market approach: Dominos concept is focused on outstanding people on a task to become the greatest pizza delivery company on earth. The commitment is to bring joy, energy and value to customers by making a delivery of pizza on time. Because the aim of the company is not only to provide services on their outlets in fact reaching out to customers on single call and by way of quickest delivery be at their door step. Customer should have many options to choose from the menu. Variety of different combination would give an edge. Customer should have the feeling that he is getting the finest offer whereas company making sure that it is earning to its extra potentials. Menu cards show that different types of pizzas have different prices on them; family size pizza can be one example of this. The extreme profit is made in meat items which is again with different combinations and verities is combined together to make an individual pizza. As soon as customer is on the table or an order has been made from outside, not only reasonable price is charged but also on some occasions discount coupons are provided to customers so that not only they can have their delicious food in a fine environment but also have some inducement to buy from Dominos. Hence, consumers are compelled to uphold trust towards Dominos. Endurance, shaping relationships and making use of change in condition Over long period of time, Dominos has grown and brought a wide range of products to the table which gave Dominos an additive advantage over its competitors, which included internationally famous pizzas for instance, Italian pizza, pan pizza and stuffed crust. In the menu offers the option of a complete meal. Besides, Dominos are nowhere behind their competitor Pizza Hut in bringing in home tradition. Dominos have a firm belief in their slogan that Think global act local. How the firm should make an entry into the market: Dominos Pizza could manage to cover the market by providing Pizza with a quick home delivery system. Dominos not only captures walking customers but also makes advertising on various media to capture wider areas so that more market is covered. Progress plan: Pizza hut is defined generally as a family deal. The reason behind it is they dont approach their customers in a direct way. They focus entire proportion at the other hand their rivals focus a certain demographical area. However pizza hut aims at a wide range of population. By successfully doing this, they achieve their targets in a profitable manner. They are faced by many rivals in the industry due to which they have to do almost everything to stay in the market because their competitors are on every high street. Pizza hut not only makes a commitment to provide best food but also considers the prize to which it should be delivered, making it as reasonable as possible. They try to give something extra in their commitment, i.e. in their food they give unique variety of stuff crust which brings customers to their doors every now and then. Their menus also have vegetarian pizzas with salad and past bar which is not offered by many restaurants. This is one of those ideas which could attract more customers. Likely development in next 10 to 20 years: Top management level of Dominos is unable to grasp the key idea which could bring change growth and innovation. They couldn`t get the whole process from which an organisation goes through which starts from birth and taken to a level of growth and maturity eventually reaching at a level of decline. This process is simply unavoidable. In the initial stage of growth, capital expenditures are made with very little or no return. Its only through crunching operational incompetence and ineffectiveness, obtaining and or inclining market share that companies regain their initial capital expenditures Dominos stayed at position of S-Curve where maximum return are being gained without taking account of the fact that decline of profits are probable. Only time can tell whether they have team and leadership development which will finally decide whether they will incline or decline. Reasonable suggestions for enhancement and advancement in overall scenario. †¢Bring new things in the way Pizzas are made. †¢Concentrate on areas where the outlets are situated. †¢Take the quality of pizza the upper level. †¢Maintain good environment in outlets. †¢Should concentrate more on marketing itself confidently. Conclusion: Dominos Pizza regularly innovates the way its product goes with the likings of its customers and in feedback getting customers satisfaction. The slogan of this company which illustrates its aim is that Think Global and act local. Hence, every now and again Dominos Pizza has been suiting its products with delicious touch for consumers. Moreover, giving quality food at reasonable price has been one of the earliest mottos. Steps have been taken such as Fun Meal and Pizza Mania to popularize it more among consumers.

Safe Learning Environment :: Education, Preventing Bullying

In this reflective account I will discuss and explain the key policies and legislations which are put together to promote a quality provision for young children. I will also examine the different strategies and practices used to promote young children’s learning. Policies I have collected three different policies from my setting, behaviour, safeguarding and equal opportunities. The main aim of this behaviour policy is: teachers and children respecting each others, preventing bullying, children learning discipline, taking action on bad behaviour, teachers creating a safe and learning environment for children. Children who have done well during the week will have their names announced at a special assembly. â€Å"emotional and social competence and well-being has a wide range of educational and work success, improved behaviour, increased inclusion, improved learning , greater social cohesion, increased social capital and improvements to mental health† (SEAL Weare and GRAY 2003), no page number). There are no legislations used in this policy but when this policy will be updated, the setting can look at other national policies and pedagogies to help them provide quality provision. Such as Every Child Matters agenda, SEAL, EPPE, As change for children paper (2003) has implemented five outcomes for children to achieve, these are â€Å"be healthy, sta y safe, enjoy and achieve, make positive contribution, and achieve economic well being†(ECM: CC, pg 9). This policy is promoting good 'quality' in giving children opportunities in making relationships, good level of achievements, good learning environment and learning boundaries. EPPE (2003) has defined quality as having good qualified staff, giving equal opportunities, partnership with parents. Safeguarding policy uses different guidance (see appendix). There are no legislations used in this policy, but by reading this policy it links within ECM agenda. ECM has designed â€Å"five key themes†, providing services to parents and children, early intervention, affordable services, quality provision and â€Å"strong foundations in the early years†( Pugh 2010, pg9). This policy can be referred to children act 2004. the main aim of this Act is To develop all the services for children, support â€Å"early intervention†, have good level of leadership in every services and multi – agency work. (CYPP, no year, page 1). Section 13 – 16 of children act 2004 outlines the importance of having local safeguarding child board for every setting, LSCB 's role is to promote every child's well being, and to protect children from harm and abuse.

Los Vendidos: Farm Workers Views :: History Historical Spanish Essays

Los Vendidos: Farm Workers' Views Los Vendidos, the movie that we viewed was performed by El Teatro Campesino, the farm workers theatre. The movie was made to show the views and ideas of the farm workers, who were just regular people who wanted to be heard. They were not extraordinary, exceptional, highly skilled and paid actors. They were just normal human beings who wanted what everyone else wanted: equality. The concept of Los Vendidos was, in my opinion, simple. The movie was a satirical view at how that Anglo-Americans chose to see the Mexican-Americans, Spanish-Americans, Latinos, Hispanos, etc. It was used to incite controversy. Los Vendidos was also used to show how some Mexican-Americans chose to ignore their ethnicity and upbringing in an attempt to separate themselves from their people. The main theme was that the Mexican-American people needed to be a part of society, as a whole. They no longer, and never really, wanted to be separated for m the rest of the country. The Mexican-American people were just as intelligent and prepared for anything, as was everyone else in the U.S. It was used to make the Mexican-American people want to get up and say, "I no longer wanted to be treated like this." The aspects of the movie that were brought out, for me, were the individual characteristics of each of the individual characters. They characteristics are drawn out and over dramatized, some came from generalities made by the Anglo-Americans but some were real aspects of the people. Most of the characteristics that came out were unfavorable but they did what they were supposed to. They told of the generalities that the groups place upon one another. The story opens with Ano Sancho talking about how he previously was a labor contractor and is now a businessman. He now has opened "Ano Sancho’s Used Mexican Lot" This is a strike at those people who have been using the immigrants and the Mexican-Americans for their own personal gain. This brings the thought that no matter the place and time, there will always be someone there to exploit the weaker people. This person is sometimes someone that the people trust ands relate to, one of their own. The next person that we come across is Ms. Jimenez (pronounced Jimmy-nes, not he-me-nez). The way that this lady was portrayed was, as stated earlier in the Introduction, an attack on the "white washed" Mexican-Americans.

Psychological Basis Of Behavior Essay

Until recently the causes of psychological disorders were not so clearly defined. Then advanced imaging techniques made it possible to see various areas of the brain and pinpoint areas that control behavior. It has been long known that the brain uses chemical messengers called neurotransmitters for signaling during its various processes. Advances in neuromedicine revealed that a lot of neurological and psychological disorders have a basis in imbalances between various neurotransmitters in the brain. Diseases like Parkinson’s, Schizophrenia and Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder are only a few where administering drugs that controlled levels of various neurotransmitters in the brain could control the disease symptoms and in some cases even provide a cure. Indeed, it was the discovery of these pharmacological agents that led to the discovery of newer agents that could control various neurological disorders by manipulating levels of neurotransmitters. Development of various drugs for schizophrenia was done on the basis of the fact that they had the ability to block dopamine receptors. In addition it was noticed that there was also an increased number of dopamine receptors present in these patients1. Similarly, in patients who suffered form Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) an abnormality in the neurotransmitter serotonin was implicated and it was shown that drug therapy that did not affect 5-HT receptors was ineffective in the treatment of OCD6. Parkinson’s disease like schizophrenia also is due to an abnormality in dopamine levels but in Parkinson’s dopamine levels become depleted4. Parkinson’s disease is a movement disorder caused by the depletion of dopamine produced in the substantia nigra, a part of the brain that is responsible for voluntary movements of the body11. Parkinson’s disease is a neurodegenerative disease that affects 1% of the population. Its pathophysiology involves degeneration of substantia nigra. This portion is responsible for movements in the body. Various hypotheses have been proposed concerning the causes of the disease and include genetic factors, environmental factors and viruses. Amongst these genetic factors are considered the most important and mutations in various genes have been identified that are linked to Parkinson’s disease. Genes that have been implicated are PINK-1, DJ-1, and LRRK2 and it is thought that in addition to hereditary viruses and toxins are thought to cause theses mutations4. Parkinson’s disease is characterized by a fine pin-rolling tremor of the hands, rigidity, bradykinesia, an expressionless face called a mask like face and a parkinsonian gait characterized by small steps and reduced swing of the arms. Additional symptoms may be present and include difficulty in chewing and swallowing, depression, fatigue, dementia, speech problems, constipation, urinary problems and orthostatic hypotension7. Symptoms vary from patient to patient and can also have drastic emotional consequences for the patient. Diagnosis is often difficult as there are no tests available and is usually made on history and examination of the nervous system. Various treatment options are available and are mainly aimed at increasing the levels of dopamine in the brain. These include Levodopa, which is a precursor of dopamine and the nerve cells use synthesize dopamine. Other drugs like bromocriptine, apomorphine and pramipexole act by imitating the activity of dopamine4. There is no definitive cure for this disease and the treatment is only symptomatic. Adjuvant therapy may be given to relieve symptoms such as depression. Schizophrenia is another disorder that is caused by an imbalance between dopamine levels. The difference is that high levels of dopamine are found and the disease has mainly psychiatric manifestations. The cause of schizophrenia still remains unknown and this has been hampered largely by the different subtypes of the disease presenting a large variety of symptoms and involving different areas of the brain. It is also a feature of diseases like Alzheimer’s and Huntington’s disease9. Schizophrenia is characterized by auditory and visual hallucinations, delusions in which the patient thinks that his thoughts are being controlled externally and paranoid behavior believing someone is poisoning him, disorders of movement, cognitive dysfunction and emotional symptoms such as lack of interest in surroundings and social withdrawal2. Newer research has suggested that people with schizophrenia may experience an inability to smell certain items suggesting a disorder in the orbitofrontal region of the brain and surprisingly this sensory deficit has also been found in patients with Parkinson’s disease10. Other studies indicate that abnormalities in the amygdalia a region of the brain dealing with psychological processes may cause schizophrenia and other psychiatric disorders8. Though the cause is still doubtful it has been seen that schizophrenia runs in families thus suggesting a genetic factor. Environmental factors and trauma during birth have also been suggested as causative factors. In the past agents used to treat schizophrenia like chlorpromazine and haloperidol blocked both D1 and D2 receptors and caused extra pyramidal side effects2. But the newer agents like clozapine have a high affinity for D1 receptors and thus do not cause unwanted extrapyramidal side effects. Other agents that have fewer side effects are risperidone and olanzepine and are very effective in controlling symptoms. All of these agents act by reducing levels of dopamine in the brain thus enabling the control of symptoms. The genetic predisposition to schizophrenia is now widely known. Family history of mental ailments such as schizoaffective disorders, bipolar disorders and depression, are a very strong indication and predisposition to developing schizophrenia. However, complex researches in the pattern of schizophrenic disorders among monozygotic twins have not been able to establish the full authenticity of the claim. The scientists claim that schizophrenia has been associated with the â€Å"shy gene† or 5-HTT gene. Currently, having a schizophrenic geneticity is only the first link; further development is dependant on other factors as well. (Schizophrenia. com, 2007)12 Many claim that there exists a link between schizophrenia and the environment. This is based on the fact that increased risk of schizophrenia within families cannot be singly attributed to the cause of it alone. The environmental factors that are thought to play an important role in causing schizophrenia include psychosocial, biological and physical factors, which are in effect from birth till maturity. It is now claimed that the interaction of the genetic and the social or environmental factors are very important in the development of disease in schizophrenic patients. (Tsuang, 2001) Many of the environmental effects that come into play do so in preterm and in early childhood. The highest contribution seems to be the state of labor, for example, hypoxia, CNS damage RH incompatibility of the mother and child etc. Also, other prenatal factors may include maternal depression, bereavement and flood and famine. Rubella infections and infections of the CNS are also thought to play a very important role in the development of schizophrenia. Schizophrenia. com, 2007)12 Obsessive-compulsive disorder is another psychiatric disorder that has at its cause an imbalance between neurotransmitters. In this case the neurotransmitter is serotonin. The areas of the brain thought to be involved in this disorder are the basal ganglia and the frontal lobe6. People with OCD have obsessional thoughts and t he compulsion to carry out those thoughts repeatedly3. Patients often have an awareness of their abnormal thought patterns and are distressed by them but are unable to control them. Common symptoms are patients exhibiting rituals and having unwanted thoughts and behavior patterns. Patients may have unwanted thoughts of a fear of germs or hurting someone called an obsession and compulsions are the acts of carrying out those obsessional thoughts like repeatedly washing and cleaning or repeatedly counting or checking things over and over again3. Sometimes it manifests in conjunction with other psychiatric disorders like schizophrenia and depression. It often resolves when these disorders are treated. It has also been seen with diseases like Parkinson’s disease and Huntington’s chorea6. This disorder usually starts in adolescence and the patient is usually aware that he has some psychiatric ailment. The etiology is uncertain but Obsessive-compulsive disorder also has a genetic component. Though environmental factors are also a major cause, head trauma has also been implicated in certain cases6. Various treatment options are available including behavioral therapy. Drugs called selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors act by delaying the uptake of serotonin into the neuron and thus prolonging it’s action. This controls the deficiency of serotonin thought to be involved in causing obsessional symptoms. Drugs that are being used include fluoxetine, sertraline, fluvoxamine, paroxetine and clomipramine. Drug therapy used to treat other anxiety disorders is not effective in obsessive-compulsive disorder since it may not target the 5-HT receptors that are used by serotonin. Adams et al (2005)14 reported an up-regulation of serotonin receptors in caudate nuclei of OCD patients. Administration of SSRI drugs was tested in OCD patients. When untreated patients were compared with healthy normal individuals, it was found that cerebral 5-HT (2A) receptors binding were high in these patients. However, this difference was diminished when SSRI drug was administered to the patients. Different studies have reported that 5-HT reuptake inhibitors (SRIs) are most successful in treatment of OCD (Mansari & Blier, 2006). This suggests serotonin depletion may be a vital cause of this disease. Normally, serotonin is actively involved in moderating flow of messages from orbital frontal cortex to thalamus via caudate nucleus. Various pharmacological studies have suggested 5-HT concentration in OFC is regulated by 5HT2 like receptors. SRI drugs modify 5-HT receptors regulation of serotonin and hence mostly used in treatment of OCD (Mansari & Blier, 2006)15. Delgado and Moreno (1998)16 also reported that these drugs binding potency is related to hallucinogens. Pitterger et al (2006) reported that drugs that reduce elevated glutamate levels in brain might be effective in treatment of OCD. Pitterger et al (2006)17 suggested antiglutamatergic agent riluzole (Rilutek) play vital role in reducing glutamate hyperactivity in the cortico-striato-thalamo-cortical circuitry. Conclusion Overall a link has been found among various mental illnesses. This is evident by the fact that obsessive-compulsive disorder may be present in people who already have Schizophrenia or Parkinson’s disease. This overlap suggests that similar areas of the brain are involved in the etiology of these diseases and also that similar neurotransmitters may also be involved. Also interesting is the similarity in the deficiency in the sense of smell in both Parkinson’s and schizophrenia. As research progresses and advanced neuroimaging techniques become available it will become possible to interlink these diseases to one another. Special areas of interest may be the basal ganglia and the amygdalia as they are seen involved in a variety of neurological disorders. Parkinson’s disease is a neurological disease, having a progressive nature. There are certain peculiar signs and symptoms that a Parkinson patient presents with; these include tremor, rigidity, akinesia or bradykinesia. Etiologically, Parkinson’s disease is found in 1% of the population above 60 years of age. The ratio increases in people above 70 years of age. Although, also found in women, predominantly affects male gender. The role of environment in causing Parkinsonism is worth mentioning. Carbon mono-oxide and manganese, apart from certain pesticides play the major role in causing the disease. Parkinsonism among old aged people is idiopathic, but familial inheritance can be possible. A lot is not known about the role of genetics and inheritance of this disease, but occurrence in younger ages carries a higher probability of familial inheritance. It has been found that schizophrenia and Parkinson disease may share similarity by showing dysfunction of the prefrontal cortical areas of the brain. Also, both these conditions are the result or excess of deficiency of the levels of dopamine, which in turn dictates the treatment plan for such conditions. Similarly, patients suffering from Parkinson’s disease may show the presence of obsessive compulsive disorders, and the severity depends upon the length of the disease progression. The relation between these three conditions presenting in close relation with each other raise many questions about the progress of each disease, and whether treatments of each condition contain treatments for others as well. (Maia, 2003)13